Map Of Great Bitter Lake – Suez Canal – Egypt – The War Office

Surveyor: The Egyptian Survey Department
Publisher: The War Office
Price: £250
Publication Date: 1912
Edition: First edition
Format: Original lithograph
Scale: 1:125000 1 inch to 2 miles
Condition: In very good condition, unframed
Sheet Size: c.75.2cm x 56.4cm when opened

Condition:

From the Map Room, Army of Occupation, Egypt. Marked: FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY. Africa: Sheet NORTH-H-36/I-III. Geographical Section, General Staff No. 2427. Contoured by Lieut. Pratt, R.G.A, 1910. First edition, lithographed at the Topographical Section. Dissected on linen on 30 folds. Topographical map of the Great Bitter Lake and Environs, with relief shown by shading and spot heights. Scale 1:125000. Shows villages, railways, roads and tracks, salt lakes, canals, wadis, oases, and terrain features. Slight wear along original folds. Marks to the front cover. Map nice and clean. Minor age-toning, marks and foxing but overall in very good indeed condition. Very scarce. JISC Library Hub lists no copies in British Institutional Collections.

The Army Of Occupation, Egypt: A Brief Description:

During World War I, the Army of Occupation in Egypt played a crucial role in the British Empire’s military strategy, especially in defending the Suez Canal and conducting campaigns in the Middle East. Egypt, though formally part of the Ottoman Empire, had been under British control since 1882, and its strategic location became even more vital as the war unfolded.

Egypt as a British Protectorate

At the outset of World War I, Egypt’s status shifted dramatically. The British had been controlling Egypt in a de facto manner since their occupation in 1882, but Egypt was still nominally part of the Ottoman Empire. When the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in late 1914, Britain declared martial law in Egypt and officially made it a British Protectorate, ending the fiction of Ottoman sovereignty. Sultan Hussein Kamel was installed as the head of state, replacing the pro-Ottoman Khedive, Abbas II, who was deposed.

Strategic Importance of Egypt and the Suez Canal

Egypt’s most significant military asset was the Suez Canal, a vital maritime link between Britain and its colonies in India, Australia, and the Far East. Control of the Suez Canal was critical for maintaining the flow of troops, supplies, and resources during the war. The British feared that the Ottoman Empire, supported by Germany, would attempt to seize or disrupt the canal, cutting off British access to its colonial territories.

The British Army of Occupation in Egypt, which was the military force stationed there to defend British interests, initially had a defensive posture. Its primary task was to guard the canal and prevent any Ottoman incursions into the region. As the war progressed, this force became central to wider British military operations in the Middle East.

Composition of the Army of Occupation

The Army of Occupation in Egypt during World War I was a multinational force, composed of British, Indian, Australian, New Zealand, and Egyptian units. Key elements of the army included:

• British Indian Army: Many of the troops defending the Suez Canal came from the British Indian Army, a crucial component of Britain’s imperial forces. Indian troops were deployed to Egypt early in the war to bolster the defence of the canal.
• ANZAC Forces: The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) played a prominent role in the Middle East. They were stationed in Egypt in 1915 and took part in defending the Suez Canal and, later, in the Gallipoli Campaign before returning to fight in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign.
• Egyptian Labour Corps: The British also relied heavily on local Egyptian labour. The Egyptian Labour Corps and the Camel Transport Corps were composed of Egyptians who supported the British war effort by building infrastructure, maintaining supply lines, and providing logistical support.
• Yeomanry and Territorial Units: The British Army also sent Yeomanry (volunteer cavalry units) and Territorial (reserve) forces to bolster the regular troops defending Egypt.

The Defence of the Suez Canal

One of the first major threats to British control of Egypt and the Suez Canal came early in the war. In February 1915, the Ottoman army, with German support, launched an attack across the Sinai Peninsula in an attempt to seize the canal. Known as the First Suez Offensive, this attack was repelled by British and Indian troops stationed along the canal.

The Ottomans attempted to cross the canal at several points but were thwarted by entrenched British positions and strong defensive works. The defeat of the Ottomans in the Battle of the Suez Canal marked the failure of their first major attempt to seize this crucial waterway.

Following the battle, the British significantly strengthened their defences along the canal and began to take a more aggressive stance in the region.

The Sinai and Palestine Campaign

After securing the canal from the initial Ottoman attacks, the British launched a series of counter-offensives aimed at pushing the Ottomans out of the Sinai Peninsula and beyond. This effort developed into the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, a pivotal theatre in the Middle East during World War I.

1. Sinai Campaign (1916): The British forces, commanded by General Sir Archibald Murray and later by General Sir Edmund Allenby, advanced across the Sinai Peninsula in 1916. The aim was to push Ottoman forces away from the canal and secure the eastern approaches to Egypt. A key feature of this campaign was the construction of infrastructure, including a railway and a pipeline to supply water to the advancing troops across the arid Sinai Desert.
2. Battle of Romani (1916): The Battle of Romani in August 1916 marked a decisive British victory. Ottoman forces, aiming for another attack on the canal, were repulsed by British and ANZAC forces near Romani, just east of the canal. This victory secured the Suez Canal from further Ottoman threats and allowed the British to shift to a more offensive strategy.
3. Advance into Palestine: After securing Sinai, the British moved into Palestine, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917. General Allenby led a highly successful campaign that saw British forces pushing northwards through Palestine and into Syria, eventually contributing to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

Life for Soldiers in Egypt

While much of the Army of Occupation was engaged in defensive operations or campaigns in the Sinai, for many troops, Egypt also became a place of rest and recovery between battles. The British forces, especially the ANZACs, spent time training and recuperating in camps around Cairo and along the canal.

However, the conditions for troops in Egypt were harsh. The climate of the Sinai Desert was extreme, with soldiers enduring scorching heat during the day and cold nights. The desert environment presented logistical challenges, including the need to secure water supplies for both soldiers and animals.

Disease was another major problem. Malaria, dysentery, and other illnesses spread through the camps, and medical facilities were often strained to cope with the numbers of sick and wounded. The British Army set up hospitals in Cairo and other parts of Egypt to treat soldiers.

Logistical and Strategic Significance

The British Army of Occupation in Egypt also played a significant role in maintaining the supply lines that connected Britain to its empire. Troops stationed in Egypt ensured that supplies and reinforcements could be safely transported through the Suez Canal to the Middle East, India, and beyond.

Additionally, Egypt served as a critical base for British operations across the Middle East and North Africa. The Royal Navy maintained a strong presence in Egyptian waters, patrolling the Mediterranean and Red Sea to protect shipping routes.

Impact of the War on Egypt

The war had a profound impact on Egypt itself. Although Egyptians did not directly fight in the front lines as part of the British military, tens of thousands were conscripted into labour corps, where they performed essential but often arduous and dangerous work. The war effort strained Egypt’s resources, leading to economic hardship for much of the population.

Political unrest in Egypt grew during the war years, as Egyptians resented British rule and the economic burdens imposed by the war. This discontent would culminate in the 1919 Egyptian Revolution, a nationalist uprising that eventually led to Egypt gaining nominal independence in 1922.

Post-War Period

After World War I, British forces remained in Egypt, continuing their role as the Army of Occupation. Although Egypt was granted formal independence in 1922, British military forces maintained control of the Suez Canal zone and continued to play a key role in Egyptian affairs until the mid-20th century, when Britain finally withdrew from the region following the 1956 Suez Crisis.

The Army of Occupation in Egypt during World War I not only defended the Suez Canal but also launched some of the most successful military campaigns in the Middle East, contributing to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and reshaping the political landscape of the region.

Great Bitter Lake: A Brief Description

The Great Bitter Lake, located in Egypt, is an essential part of the Suez Canal and has played a significant role in the history of the region, from ancient times through the modern era. Its history is tied to Egypt’s geography, the canal’s construction, and several notable global events.

Geography and Formation

The Great Bitter Lake (Arabic: البحيرة المرة الكبرى) is located about halfway along the Suez Canal, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. It spans an area of about 250 square kilometres (97 square miles) and, along with the Little Bitter Lake, forms a natural widening in the canal. This allows ships to anchor while waiting for passage, making it a critical part of the canal’s operation.

The lake is part of a naturally occurring salt basin in Egypt. Before the construction of the Suez Canal, the area that is now the Great Bitter Lake was a desert depression filled with salty soil, giving it the “bitter” name. When the canal was constructed in the mid-19th century, seawater from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea flooded this depression, transforming it into the lake we know today.

Ancient and Pre-Modern Significance

In ancient times, the region around the Great Bitter Lake was already important due to its proximity to the Isthmus of Suez, the narrow land bridge that connected Africa and Asia. Pharaohs and emperors recognised the strategic significance of controlling access to both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and several early attempts were made to connect the two bodies of water via canals.

• Canals of Pharaohs: As early as the 13th century BCE, Pharaoh Seti I and later Pharaoh Necho II attempted to build a canal connecting the Nile River to the Red Sea, a precursor to the modern Suez Canal. These efforts were not entirely successful, and the canals were often filled in with desert sand.
• Ptolemaic and Roman Eras: During the reign of Ptolemy II (283–246 BCE), the Egyptians successfully built the Canal of the Pharaohs, connecting the Red Sea to the Nile. This canal was maintained for centuries, and its remnants can still be found near the Bitter Lakes. However, it eventually fell into disrepair.

Despite these efforts, it wasn’t until the 19th century that a continuous canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea was fully realised.

Construction of the Suez Canal (1859–1869)

The modern history of the Great Bitter Lake is closely tied to the construction of the Suez Canal, one of the most ambitious engineering projects of the 19th century. Under the direction of French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, the canal was constructed between 1859 and 1869 to connect the Port Said on the Mediterranean to the Port of Suez on the Red Sea.

• Incorporation of the Lake: The Great Bitter Lake, along with the Little Bitter Lake, was used as a natural part of the canal route. The lakes serve as an anchorage area and allow ships to pass one another or wait before continuing through the single-lane sections of the canal.
• Flooding: Seawater from both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea flooded the depression to form the Great Bitter Lake. The lake’s natural basin made it an ideal location to be incorporated into the canal route, avoiding the need for massive excavation through this area.

The Suez Canal was completed in 1869, and the Great Bitter Lake became an essential part of its infrastructure, enabling the waterway to handle more traffic and serve as a strategic anchor point.

Strategic Importance and Global Events

The Great Bitter Lake has played a key role in global events, particularly due to its strategic location at the crossroads of major maritime trade routes. Several important episodes in modern history are linked to this lake and the Suez Canal.

World War I (1914–1918)

During World War I, the Suez Canal, including the Great Bitter Lake, became a vital link for the British Empire, allowing troops and supplies to be moved between Europe, India, and the Middle East without taking the longer route around Africa. The British forces fortified the canal and defended it against Ottoman attacks, especially as the Ottomans aimed to disrupt British shipping routes.

World War II (1939–1945)

In World War II, the canal once again played a strategic role. Control over the Suez Canal was crucial for both the Axis and Allied powers. The British, with their naval supremacy, ensured that the canal remained open, despite threats from German and Italian forces in North Africa. The Great Bitter Lake and the wider canal area were heavily fortified as the canal remained critical for transporting troops and supplies between Europe and Asia.

Yellow Fleet (1967–1975)

One of the most famous incidents in the lake’s history is the Yellow Fleet episode during the Six-Day War between Egypt and Israel in 1967. During the conflict, Egypt blockaded the Suez Canal by sinking ships at its northern end, and 15 cargo ships that were in the Great Bitter Lake at the time were trapped.

• The Yellow Fleet: The stranded ships, which came from different countries, remained stuck in the Great Bitter Lake for eight years as the canal was closed due to ongoing hostilities between Egypt and Israel. The ships became known as the “Yellow Fleet” because they were coated in desert sand and dust over time. The crews of the trapped ships formed a small international community, holding social events, producing stamps, and even organising a floating regatta.
• Canal Reopening: It wasn’t until 1975, after the end of the Yom Kippur War and the subsequent peace negotiations, that the canal was reopened, and the ships were able to leave. By then, many of the ships were in poor condition and had to be scrapped.

Suez Crisis (1956)

The Suez Crisis, or the Second Arab-Israeli War, took place in 1956 when Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal, which had been controlled by British and French interests since its construction. In response, Britain, France, and Israel launched a military intervention to regain control of the canal and depose Nasser.

• Impact on the Lake: Although much of the fighting took place near the canal’s northern end, the canal, including the Great Bitter Lake, became a focal point of the conflict. The crisis ended with Egypt retaining control of the canal, and the episode marked the decline of British and French influence in the region, while solidifying Nasser’s position as a leader of Arab nationalism.

Ecological and Environmental Role

The Great Bitter Lake is highly saline due to its history as a desert depression and its limited natural freshwater inflow. Despite this, it plays an important ecological role, particularly due to its connection to the Suez Canal. The canal acts as a corridor for marine species moving between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, a process known as Lessepsian migration.

This migration has had significant ecological impacts, as species from the Red Sea, including fish, invertebrates, and other marine life, have moved into the Mediterranean, sometimes disrupting local ecosystems. The Great Bitter Lake itself is a stopping point for various migratory species that travel between these seas.

Modern Importance

Today, the Great Bitter Lake remains a critical part of the Suez Canal’s infrastructure. The canal itself has been expanded and deepened over the years to accommodate larger ships, and the lake continues to serve as a vital anchorage for vessels transiting the canal. The Suez Canal remains one of the world’s most important shipping routes, accounting for a significant portion of global maritime trade.

The lake’s strategic position ensures that it will continue to play a key role in international trade and geopolitics for the foreseeable future.

The Egyptian Survey Department: A Brief Description:

The Egyptian Survey Department has a rich and detailed history, closely linked to both the development of modern cartography in Egypt and British imperial interests in the region. It played a significant role in shaping Egypt’s infrastructure, land management, and military operations, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Early Beginnings (1830s–1890s)

The Egyptian Survey Department traces its roots back to the early 19th century, during the rule of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who sought to modernise Egypt’s infrastructure and administration. As part of these reforms, the need for detailed land surveys became apparent, especially for agricultural management and taxation purposes. Early surveys were carried out by French and Italian engineers, who produced rudimentary maps and surveys of Egypt’s Nile Delta and key urban areas.

However, these early efforts were limited in scope and accuracy. Egypt lacked a dedicated governmental body for overseeing systematic land surveys, and so cartographic endeavours remained ad hoc until later in the 19th century.

Formal Establishment (1898)

The Egyptian Survey Department was formally established in 1898 during the period of British occupation (which had begun in 1882). It was created to bring structure and coordination to land surveying efforts across Egypt. The impetus behind its founding was multifaceted:

1. Land Administration: The British authorities sought to modernise Egypt’s land tax system, which required accurate surveys of agricultural land to determine property boundaries and assess taxes fairly.
2. Infrastructure Development: The British administration undertook numerous projects to improve Egypt’s infrastructure, including railways, irrigation, and urban planning. These efforts required reliable maps and geodetic data.
3. Military and Strategic Interests: The British military, especially during World War I and later in World War II, needed accurate topographical maps for operational planning. The Survey Department provided much of this vital information.

The department was initially under the direction of Captain H.G. Lyons, a British officer with expertise in cartography and geology. Lyons, who had been seconded from the British Army, oversaw the professionalisation of the department and the implementation of modern surveying techniques. His leadership marked the beginning of a productive era for Egyptian cartography.

Key Contributions and Projects

From its inception, the Egyptian Survey Department embarked on a number of significant projects that had lasting impacts on Egypt’s administration and development.

1. Land Cadastre: One of the department’s primary missions was to establish a comprehensive cadastre, or land registry, for Egypt. This was an enormous undertaking that involved surveying thousands of square kilometres of agricultural land, particularly in the Nile Delta, where landownership was fragmented and records were often outdated or inaccurate.
2. Topographical Mapping: In addition to the cadastre, the department was tasked with producing topographical maps for various purposes, including military operations and infrastructure development. Early maps focused on key urban areas such as Cairo and Alexandria, as well as the Nile Valley, the Western Desert, and Sinai.
3. Geodetic Surveys: The department conducted precise geodetic surveys across Egypt, creating a national coordinate system that would be used for all subsequent mapping efforts. These surveys involved measuring long distances with high accuracy, establishing a framework for detailed topographical mapping.
4. Irrigation and Water Resources: The Egyptian Survey Department was instrumental in mapping Egypt’s irrigation systems, which were essential for the country’s agricultural economy. Accurate maps allowed for better management of the Nile’s floodwaters and the expansion of irrigation infrastructure, including the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in 1902.

The Role of British Surveyors and Engineers

Although the Egyptian Survey Department was an Egyptian governmental body, it was heavily staffed by British officers, surveyors, and engineers, especially in its early years. Many of these individuals came from the Royal Engineers, a branch of the British Army that specialised in military engineering and surveying.

Notable British figures who contributed to the department’s success included:

• Captain H.G. Lyons: The first director, who laid the groundwork for much of the department’s early achievements.
• Captain F.J. Jourdain: Lyons’ successor, who oversaw the continuation of the department’s expansion and the completion of major mapping projects.

These British officers brought with them the latest techniques in surveying and mapping, including the use of triangulation, plane table surveys, and modern instruments such as the theodolite. Their expertise ensured that the maps produced by the department were of a high standard, comparable to those being produced in Britain at the time.

World War I and Military Mapping

During World War I, the Egyptian Survey Department became a crucial asset to the British military, particularly during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. The department provided detailed topographical maps of the region, allowing British forces to navigate the harsh desert terrain and plan their campaigns against Ottoman forces.

This military role continued into the interwar period and World War II, when the department once again supported British and Allied operations in North Africa. The strategic importance of the Suez Canal and Egypt’s position as a base for British forces made accurate maps indispensable for planning troop movements and defensive strategies.

Post-Independence (1950s–Present)

Following Egypt’s independence from British influence, particularly after the 1952 revolution, the Egyptian Survey Department transitioned into a fully Egyptian-staffed organisation. It continued its work in land surveying, topographical mapping, and geodetic surveys, but the focus shifted towards supporting Egypt’s national development projects rather than serving British colonial interests.

Notable post-independence contributions include:

• National Infrastructure Projects: The department has been involved in mapping and surveying for modern infrastructure projects, such as the construction of the Aswan High Dam and the expansion of urban areas like Cairo and Alexandria.
• Land Reclamation: As Egypt has sought to expand its agricultural base through land reclamation projects in the desert, the Survey Department has played a key role in providing the necessary geodetic and topographical data.

Legacy and Continued Importance

Today, the Egyptian General Authority for Survey (formerly the Egyptian Survey Department) remains a cornerstone of Egypt’s infrastructure and development planning. Its work continues to provide essential data for urban planning, land management, and natural resource exploration. The department’s long history, particularly its foundational years under British direction, has left a lasting impact on Egypt’s administrative and geographical landscape.

The legacy of the British-influenced Egyptian Survey Department is still evident in many of the maps, cadastral systems, and geodetic frameworks that are used in Egypt today.

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