Peshawar Guide Map – Pakistan – Published Under The Direction Of Brigadier H J Couchman – Surveyor General Of India 1935

Surveyor General: Brigadier H. J. Couchman
Publisher: The Survey Of India, Calcutta
Price: £950
Publication Date: 1935
Edition: First edition
Format: Heliozincograph
Condition: Good condition, unframed
Sheet Size: Sheet Size: 71.5cm x 111.4cm
Scale: 6 inches to 1 miles: 1:10560

Condition:

Original fold lines into 24 sections with minor age toning and marks. Closed tears to fold lines. Small areas of loss at fold intersections with a small amount of loss to the left margin, not affecting the map. Reverse is blank with minor age toning and a few pencil marks. ‘For Official Use Only’ stamp to the upper margin. Minor pencil notes to upper margin. In original and unrestored condition. Exceptionally scarce.

Location: Map Drawer C: FS: Folder 1220

Description:

A highly detailed map on a scale of 6 inches to 1 mile. Identified points include both unfenced, fenced, walled of barbed wire gardens, lanes and important buildings in the city, streams, canals and embankments, roads and tracks, camping and sporting grounds and pitches, and mosques and temples. No copies are held institutionally. Only one other known copy of this map has been recorded.

The 1935 Survey of Peshawar: A Short Description

In 1935, the Survey of India undertook various mapping and surveying projects, including surveys of important urban and frontier regions like Peshawar. At that time, Peshawar was a key city on the North-West Frontier, critical to British administrative and military control. The surveys conducted in Peshawar were part of broader efforts to update cartographic records for military, administrative, and developmental purposes.

Background of the Survey of India

The Survey of India was one of the oldest scientific organisations in India, founded in 1767. By the early 20th century, the organisation had grown into a highly specialised and crucial part of British colonial administration. Its responsibilities included mapping the vast and varied landscapes of the Indian subcontinent, which was essential for everything from land revenue assessments to military campaigns.

The Great Trigonometrical Survey, begun in the early 19th century, had laid the foundation for much of India’s modern cartography, but by 1935, the Survey of India was constantly updating and refining its maps to reflect new infrastructure developments, population shifts, and political boundaries. As Surveyor General Harold John Couchman presided over the Survey of India from 1937, the focus on cartographic accuracy and technological advancement was evident.

Purpose of the 1935 Survey of Peshawar

The 1935 survey of Peshawar had several objectives, reflecting both the administrative needs of the British Raj and the military significance of the region. Some of the key aims of the survey were:

1. Updating Cartographic Records: The last major surveys of the North-West Frontier had been conducted earlier in the century, and significant changes had taken place since then. New roads, military installations, and urban development in Peshawar required updated maps to ensure accurate records for governance and military planning.
2. Military Planning: Given Peshawar’s strategic importance near the Khyber Pass, the British needed precise maps for military operations. These maps would have included detailed topographical information about the terrain, as well as updates on infrastructure, such as roads and railway lines that could be crucial for troop movements and supply lines.
3. Civil Administration: Alongside military concerns, the British colonial government needed accurate maps for civil governance, including land revenue assessments and urban planning. As Peshawar continued to grow, driven by both its military significance and its role as a trade hub, detailed surveys were essential for managing urban expansion, ensuring effective tax collection, and planning new infrastructure.
4. Tribal Areas and Frontier Management: The survey also extended to the surrounding tribal areas, where the British had to balance direct governance with a degree of autonomy granted to the fiercely independent Pashtun tribes. Accurate maps of these areas were essential for monitoring movements, managing border conflicts, and planning military expeditions.

Methods and Techniques

By 1935, the Survey of India had embraced a range of advanced techniques, which improved the accuracy and efficiency of their surveys:

1. Triangulation: The core technique used in the Survey of India was triangulation, where surveyors established a network of triangles across the region to measure distances and elevations with high precision. This method had been foundational since the Great Trigonometrical Survey and continued to be vital in 1935.
2. Topographical Surveys: The 1935 survey would have included detailed topographical mapping, capturing the physical features of Peshawar and its surroundings. This was essential for both military strategy and civil engineering projects, ensuring that British authorities had accurate information about the landscape.
3. Aerial Photography: By the mid-1930s, aerial photography had become a valuable tool for the Survey of India. Aerial surveys allowed for faster and more comprehensive mapping, particularly in difficult-to-access areas. It is likely that the 1935 survey of Peshawar made use of aerial photography to supplement traditional ground-based methods.
4. Cadastral Surveys: For civil administration, cadastral surveys were carried out to map land ownership and boundaries, which was vital for land revenue assessments and urban development. In Peshawar, this would have involved detailed mapping of property boundaries, agricultural areas, and urban land parcels.

Challenges Faced

The Survey of India faced several challenges while conducting the 1935 survey of Peshawar:

1. Difficult Terrain: Peshawar’s location near the Khyber Pass and its proximity to the rugged frontier areas meant that surveyors had to navigate difficult and often dangerous terrain. The surrounding tribal regions were known for their resistance to British control, and survey teams could face hostility or even armed attacks from local tribes.
2. Security Concerns: The North-West Frontier was a militarily sensitive area, with the British maintaining a substantial garrison in Peshawar Cantonment to manage unrest in the region. Surveyors needed military protection during their work, especially in areas close to the border or in the tribal regions, where unrest was common.
3. Technological Limitations: Despite advances in surveying technology, the process remained labour-intensive and time-consuming. Ground surveys required teams of skilled surveyors, engineers, and labourers to work in often harsh conditions, and the processing of the collected data into usable maps took considerable time and effort.
4. Political Tensions: In 1935, political unrest was growing across British India, and Peshawar was no exception. The rise of nationalist movements, such as the Khudai Khidmatgar movement led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, meant that British officials in the region were dealing with increasing calls for independence. Surveyors working in this charged political environment had to be cautious and aware of the growing anti-British sentiment.

Outcomes and Impact

The 1935 survey of Peshawar contributed significantly to the British administration’s knowledge and control of the region. Some of the key outcomes were:

1. Accurate Maps for Military Use: The updated maps produced by the Survey of India were crucial for military planning. These maps would have been used by British and Indian forces in the event of any conflict along the frontier, as well as for routine patrolling and border management.
2. Urban Planning and Development: The survey data helped in the continued development of Peshawar as an urban centre. Updated cadastral maps enabled more efficient tax collection and land management, while topographical maps were essential for planning infrastructure projects such as roads, railways, and public works.
3. Border Management: The survey also played a role in border management, particularly in the context of British relations with Afghanistan and the surrounding tribal areas. Accurate maps were essential for monitoring movements and resolving disputes, both with local tribes and with the Afghan government.
4. Legacy for Post-Independence: Although the British left India in 1947, the work of the Survey of India, including the 1935 survey of Peshawar, laid the foundation for post-independence governance. The maps and data produced during this period continued to be used by the Indian and Pakistani governments for military, administrative, and development purposes.

Conclusion

The 1935 survey of Peshawar by the Survey of India was a vital undertaking that served both military and civil purposes for the British administration. It provided accurate and up-to-date maps of a region that was strategically significant, politically volatile, and crucial to British control over the North-West Frontier. The survey reflected the ongoing importance of cartography and surveying in British India, both for maintaining colonial authority and for planning the future development of the subcontinent.

Peshawar In 1935: A Brief Description

Peshawar in 1935 was a key city in the British Raj, located on the North-West Frontier, a region of significant strategic and political importance to British India. The city had been an important centre of trade, culture, and military activity for centuries, due to its proximity to the Khyber Pass, a crucial route between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

In 1935, Peshawar remained a major garrison town for British forces, serving as a base for monitoring and controlling the volatile border areas, where tribes frequently resisted British rule. The city was a hub for the British Indian Army, with various military installations, including the famous Peshawar Cantonment.

The population in Peshawar during this period consisted of a mix of Pashtuns, Hindus, Sikhs, and other ethnic groups, living in a city that was both traditional and heavily influenced by colonial administration. The local economy thrived on trade, particularly with Afghanistan, with the markets bustling with goods such as textiles, spices, and jewellery.

Tensions between the British administration and the local population were ever-present, exacerbated by nationalist movements. The Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants of God), led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, was an influential non-violent resistance group in the region, advocating for self-rule and aligning itself with the Indian National Congress.

Architecturally, Peshawar in 1935 retained much of its historic charm, with narrow, winding streets, traditional bazaars, and ancient structures. At the same time, British colonial influence could be seen in the construction of modern buildings, schools, and infrastructure, particularly in areas like the cantonment.

The social life of the city’s residents was shaped by both local customs and the presence of the British, with a blend of traditional festivals and colonial recreational activities. The British elite often gathered at clubs and officers’ messes, while the local population frequented teahouses and religious gatherings.

Despite its complexities, Peshawar in 1935 was a vibrant crossroads of cultures, where ancient traditions met the modernising forces of colonial rule.

Peshawar Cantonment: A Brief Description

In 1935, Peshawar Cantonment was a crucial military and administrative centre under British rule in India. Established in the mid-19th century as part of the British strategy to control the North-West Frontier, it served as a base for British forces stationed near the volatile tribal areas bordering Afghanistan. Peshawar Cantonment was a key element in the British Indian Army’s defence infrastructure, providing a secure and fortified area from which the British could manage military and administrative affairs in this strategically important region.

Historical Background

Peshawar had long been a site of military importance due to its location near the Khyber Pass, a historically significant route for trade and invasions between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. With the annexation of the Sikh Empire in 1849, the British inherited control of Peshawar and recognised its importance as a frontier town. The Peshawar Cantonment was formally established in 1868, after the British intensified their efforts to fortify the North-West Frontier to resist potential threats from both local tribes and external powers, particularly Russia, during the Great Game.

By 1935, the cantonment had become a well-developed and self-sufficient enclave, distinct from the older, walled city of Peshawar. It housed British officers, soldiers, and their families, as well as local service providers, and was meticulously organised in line with British colonial practices. The cantonment was seen as a symbol of British authority, designed to project power and provide a comfortable, orderly environment for its European inhabitants.

Layout and Infrastructure

Peshawar Cantonment in 1935 was a carefully planned area with broad tree-lined roads, colonial-style bungalows, and military barracks. The layout was typical of British cantonments, where residential areas for officers and their families were separated from the quarters for soldiers and other personnel. Bungalows were spacious, often surrounded by large gardens, and many featured verandas, reflecting the British colonial architectural style of the time.

Public amenities were also provided within the cantonment, including clubs, schools, churches, and hospitals. The Gymkhana Club, for example, was a social hub where British officers and their families could engage in recreational activities like tennis, polo, and formal dinners. There were churches for worship, such as St. John’s Church, which was built in the early years of the cantonment to serve the Christian community.

In addition to its residential and recreational facilities, the cantonment had military installations, including barracks, drill grounds, and parade squares. The British Indian Army units stationed here were tasked with maintaining security in the region, particularly along the North-West Frontier. The cantonment’s central location made it an ideal base for launching military expeditions into the tribal areas and for monitoring the ever-present threat of unrest.

Military Importance

By 1935, Peshawar Cantonment was one of the most important military posts in British India. It played a key role in maintaining control over the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and the tribal areas, where resistance to British rule was frequent. The area was inhabited primarily by Pashtun tribes, many of whom were fiercely independent and resistant to any form of external control. The British had to engage in regular skirmishes with these tribes, making Peshawar a vital staging ground for military campaigns.

The cantonment’s proximity to the Khyber Pass, the main gateway to Afghanistan, heightened its strategic value. In the broader context of the Great Game – the political and diplomatic confrontation between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over influence in Central Asia – Peshawar Cantonment was seen as a critical point for the defence of British India from potential incursions.

The British also maintained a significant intelligence presence in Peshawar, using the cantonment as a centre for gathering information on the activities of the tribes, as well as monitoring the movements of foreign powers, particularly the Russians. This intelligence was crucial for maintaining British influence in the region and pre-empting any potential uprisings or external threats.

Social Life in the Cantonment

Life in Peshawar Cantonment in 1935 was markedly different from that in the surrounding areas. The cantonment was a small, self-contained world for the British community, where the social and cultural life revolved around military and colonial rituals. Officers and their families enjoyed a comfortable, almost idyllic lifestyle, with access to clubs, sporting facilities, and social gatherings that reinforced British customs and hierarchies.

The cantonment also served as a refuge from the heat and chaos of the surrounding city. Unlike the old city of Peshawar, which was densely populated and bustling with commercial activity, the cantonment was quieter, more orderly, and distinctly European in character. The British made efforts to maintain this separation, both physically and socially, as a way of preserving their identity and authority in the region.

Political Context

By 1935, political unrest was growing across British India, and the North-West Frontier was no exception. The Indian nationalist movement, spearheaded by figures like Mahatma Gandhi, had gained significant momentum, and even in the frontier regions, there was increasing agitation for independence. The Khudai Khidmatgar movement, led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, was particularly influential in the North-West Frontier. This non-violent movement sought greater autonomy and eventually independence from British rule.

Although the British remained firmly in control in 1935, the political landscape was shifting. The Government of India Act of 1935, which sought to introduce more self-governance to India, was a response to the growing nationalist sentiment. In the North-West Frontier, the British were particularly wary of the potential for unrest and sought to maintain a strong military presence in Peshawar Cantonment to counter any challenges to their authority.

Conclusion

In 1935, Peshawar Cantonment stood as a testament to British military and administrative power on the North-West Frontier of India. It was a well-fortified and carefully planned enclave that served as the base for British forces controlling a volatile region. The cantonment reflected the broader colonial endeavour to impose order and control over a diverse and often resistant population, while also providing a comfortable environment for the British community.

However, beneath the surface of this apparent stability, the winds of change were blowing. Political movements for Indian independence were gaining strength, and Peshawar Cantonment would soon find itself at the centre of a rapidly changing world, as British rule in India approached its final years.

Brigadier H J Couchman: A Short Biography

Harold John Couchman served as the Surveyor General of India from 1933 to 1937, a period marked by significant changes both within the British administration in India and globally, with the outbreak of the Second World War.

As Surveyor General, Couchman would have overseen the extensive cartographic and surveying efforts of the Survey of India, a vital institution for both the British Raj and the Indian subcontinent. His tenure coincided with a period of continued technological advancement in surveying techniques, including the use of aerial photography, which had become increasingly important in military and civil mapping. This was particularly crucial as the geopolitical landscape shifted with the increasing likelihood of global conflict, where accurate maps were of great strategic importance.

Couchman’s leadership would have been instrumental in managing the mapping of British India’s borders, especially along the North-West Frontier, where tensions remained high, and in areas such as the north-eastern frontier with China and Burma. During his tenure, he would have also dealt with the administrative and logistical challenges posed by the vast and diverse terrain of India, from the Himalayan ranges to the dense jungles of Assam and the arid regions of the Thar Desert.

In addition to his surveying duties, Harold John Couchman likely played a role in supporting military preparations as the Second World War escalated. The British Indian Army’s operations, both within the subcontinent and in external theatres, depended on the accurate and up-to-date maps produced under the Surveyor General’s office.

Couchman’s role as Surveyor General of India positioned him at a critical juncture in the history of British India, where the demands of civil governance, military strategy, and impending independence movements all required precise geographic and cartographic knowledge. His contributions, though less documented in popular history, were essential to the infrastructure and defence mechanisms of British rule during a tumultuous era.

Heliozincography: A Short Description

Heliozincography is a printing process that was developed in the 19th century to reproduce maps, plans, and other illustrations with great detail. The term is derived from heliography (a photographic process using sunlight) and zincography (a method of printing using zinc plates).

Key Features of Heliozincography:

1. Combination of Photography and Printing:
   • Heliozincography involved transferring photographic images onto zinc plates, which could then be used to reproduce maps or drawings. The process started with a photograph of the original map or illustration, which was then used to prepare a printing plate.
2. Zinc Plates:
   • The process utilized zinc plates as the medium for printing, replacing traditional stone or copper plates that had been used earlier in lithography and engraving. Zinc offered a cheaper and faster alternative for producing detailed prints.
3. Application in Cartography:
   • Heliozincography was widely used for map reproduction, especially by government survey departments, including the Survey of India and the Ordnance Survey in Britain. It allowed the mass production of accurate and detailed maps.
   • For example, the Survey of India under Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard would have used heliozincography or similar methods to reproduce maps from surveys like the 1911 Baramulla and Anantnag survey.
4. Advantages:
   • Cost-effectiveness: Zinc plates were cheaper to produce than copper or stone plates.
   • Speed: It allowed for quicker production of multiple copies, which was especially useful for distributing maps and technical drawings.
   • Precision: The photographic component of the process ensured a high degree of accuracy in reproducing details.
5. Process:
   • The original image (such as a map or drawing) was photographed, and the photographic image was chemically transferred onto the surface of the zinc plate.
   • The plate was then treated with chemicals so that only the lines or details to be printed remained on the surface, while the rest was etched away.
   • Ink would adhere to the raised parts of the plate, and the image would be transferred onto paper through a printing press.

Historical Use:

• Survey of India: The heliozincograph was widely used by the Survey of India for producing accurate and reproducible maps of regions such as Kashmir. Given the difficulty in producing detailed maps of mountainous terrain, the precision of this process was essential for both administrative and military purposes.
• Ordnance Survey: In the UK, heliozincography was used by the Ordnance Survey to reproduce topographical maps with the necessary detail for military and civilian use.

Conclusion:

Heliozincography played a crucial role in the mass production of accurate, detailed maps and technical drawings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It combined the emerging technology of photography with traditional zinc plate printing, providing a fast, cost-effective method for disseminating important geographical and technical information, particularly in fields like cartography.

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