Saudi Arabia With City Maps Of Riyadh Jeddah And Dammam – Second Edition

Publisher: GEOprojects Arab World Map Library
Price: £250 including postage in the UK
Publication Date: Not stated but c.1999-2002
Edition: Second Edition
Map Size: 64cm x 76cm
Binding: Original folding wrappers
Condition: Very good

Condition:

One in the series. Date: c.1999-2002. Folding map. Size: 64cm x 76cm when opened. Folds to 22cm x 13cm. Map is vibrant, bright and clean and in very good condition with only minor wear to the fold intersections. The reverse show maps of Riyadh, Jeddah And Dammam on a scale of 1:20000 and Mecca on a scale of 1:13000. Minor rubbing and edgewear. Repriced by the publisher. A very good copy. Scarce.

Saudi Arabia In The 1990s: A Brief Overview

The 1990s were a defining decade for Saudi Arabia, marked by regional conflict, internal reform, economic recalibration, and gradual—though cautious—social change. The Kingdom navigated the aftermath of the Gulf War, shifts in global energy markets, and the early signs of domestic and international security challenges. It was a period in which the modern Saudi state’s political structures and strategic alignments were both tested and reinforced.

1. Political Landscape

Monarchical Governance

Saudi Arabia remained an absolute monarchy under King Fahd, whose reign had begun in 1982. Although ultimate authority rested with the King and senior princes, the decade saw attempts to formalise government operations and introduce limited consultative processes.

1992 Constitutional Reforms

In response to regional instability and domestic calls for clearer governance, the state introduced three landmark documents:

• The Basic Law of Governance, outlining the monarchy’s roles, citizens’ duties, and the primacy of Islamic law.
• The Law of the Consultative Council, which re-established the Shura Council as an appointed advisory body.
• The Law of the Provinces, defining local administrative responsibilities.

These reforms strengthened institutional clarity, although they fell short of democratic transformation. They were intended to stabilise governance, enhance transparency, and respond to public pressure without altering the fundamental structure of royal authority.

2. The Gulf War and Its Aftermath

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 shaped the decade’s political and strategic realities.

Security and Defence

Saudi Arabia hosted coalition forces for the liberation of Kuwait and for the defence of its own territory. This unprecedented foreign military presence was both a strategic necessity and a source of internal debate, particularly among conservative religious circles.

Impact on Domestic Politics

The war heightened concerns about national unity, border security, and economic resilience. It also intensified public discussion about government accountability, contributing to the reform initiatives introduced shortly afterwards.

3. Economy and the Role of Oil

Oil Market Volatility

Oil revenues remained the backbone of state finances. The 1990s saw fluctuations in global prices, with mid-decade downturns placing pressure on public expenditure, development planning, and employment.

The Rise of Saudi Aramco

During this period, Saudi Aramco consolidated its position as a fully nationalised and technologically sophisticated oil company. Investments were made in advanced extraction, refining, and downstream industries. The company’s modernisation efforts laid the foundation for later diversification agendas.

Economic Diversification Efforts

Though modest by later standards, the state:

• Encouraged private-sector participation.
• Developed industrial cities such as Jubail and Yanbu.
• Expanded telecommunications and financial services.
• Invested in infrastructure including roads, ports, and utilities.

While diversification remained limited, the groundwork for future economic reform programmes was clearly established.

4. Society, Culture, and Daily Life

Demographic Growth

Saudi Arabia’s population increased rapidly, driven by high birth rates and significant immigration. Cities such as Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam expanded dramatically.

Social Norms

Saudi society in the 1990s was strongly shaped by conservative religious values:

• Gender segregation was strictly maintained in workplaces, schools, and public spaces.
• Society placed a strong emphasis on traditional roles and family structures.
• The religious establishment exercised major influence over education and public morality.

At the same time, the decade witnessed:

• Growth in women’s higher education enrolment.
• The introduction of satellite television, which exposed households to wider cultural and political discourse.
• Early adoption of mobile communications, which began to alter social interaction by the late 1990s.

5. Religious Thought and Internal Tensions

Rise of Islamist Activism

Following the Gulf War, groups of clerics and activists issued petitions calling for political reforms, greater transparency, and social justice. Although these movements did not threaten the state directly, they prompted government responses ranging from dialogue to restrictions.

Terrorism and Security Threats

By the mid-1990s, the Kingdom faced new security challenges, including bombings attributed to extremist groups. These incidents led to a significant strengthening of domestic security apparatuses and closer cooperation with international partners.

6. Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

Strategic Alignment with the United States

The 1990s solidified Saudi–American cooperation, especially in defence and intelligence. The relationship remained essential for regional stability and the containment of Iraq.

Role in OPEC

Saudi Arabia continued to act as the cartel’s stabilising force, adjusting production to support global market balance.

Leadership in the Islamic World

The Kingdom emphasised its custodianship of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, provided extensive humanitarian aid, and maintained support for religious education across the Muslim world.

Regional Engagement

Saudi diplomacy was active in Arab and Gulf affairs, supporting post-war reconstruction in Kuwait and promoting Gulf Cooperation Council cohesion.

7. Urban Development and Infrastructure

Urban modernisation was a notable feature of the decade:

• Riyadh expanded its administrative districts, built ring roads, and developed early high-rise buildings.
• Jeddah invested in commercial districts and coastal redevelopment.
• Eastern Province cities, particularly those linked to the oil industry, continued to grow around industrial hubs.

Public services, hospitals, schools, and transportation networks benefited from sustained state investment, even in years of constrained oil revenue.

8. Technology and Media

The 1990s introduced technological transformations that reshaped Saudi communication and culture:

• Satellite television brought pan-Arab news channels and entertainment, broadening public awareness.
• Mobile phones appeared in the latter half of the decade.
• Internet access remained restricted to universities and government entities but established the basis for wider adoption in the early 2000s.

Conclusion

Saudi Arabia in the 1990s was a country negotiating the demands of a rapidly changing region while preserving a highly traditional social order. The decade’s blend of constitutional reform, economic restructuring, security challenges, and technological exposure created the conditions for the more sweeping transformations that would follow in the 2000s and 2010s. It was a pivotal era in which the Kingdom began to confront globalisation, internal debate, and shifting regional power dynamics—while maintaining political continuity and strategic stability.

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