INDIA AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES MILLION SHEET NO. 38 – KABUL – FIRST EDITION – PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF COLONEL S G BURRARD SURVEYOR GENERAL OF INDIA 1917

Surveyor General: Colonel S. G. Burrard
Publisher: The Survey Of India, Calcutta
Price: £400
Publication Date: 1917
Edition: 1st edition
Format: Heliozincograph
Condition: In very good condition, unframed
Sheet Size: Sheet Size: 44.8cm x 56.6cm
Scale: 1:1000000 or 1 inch to 16 miles

Condition:

Sheet No. 38.  A detailed map of the region on a good scale of 1 inch to 16 miles at an important time in the history of Kabul and ‘the great game’. Stamp of the Headquarters of the Mobile Brigade. Covers very slightly dusty and marked. Original fold lines. Minor wear to the fold intersections with a small amount of loss. Reverse is blank with very minor age toning and marks. In very good, original and unrestored condition. Very scarce.

Location: Map Drawer C: FS: Folder 1220 002509

Kabul in 1917: A Brief Account

In 1917, Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, was a city of strategic, political, and cultural importance in a nation navigating its position between great powers. Situated in the foothills of the Hindu Kush mountains, Kabul served as the political and administrative centre of the Kingdom of Afghanistan, under the rule of Emir Habibullah Khan (1901–1919). During this period, Afghanistan remained officially neutral in the global conflict of World War I, but Kabul’s political landscape reflected the broader geopolitical tensions of the time.

Political and Administrative Context

1. The Kingdom of Afghanistan:
   • Afghanistan was an independent monarchy ruled by Emir Habibullah Khan, a reform-minded but cautious leader.
   • Habibullah sought to modernise Afghanistan while preserving its sovereignty and neutrality. He maintained a delicate balance between the British Empire in India and the Russian Empire, avoiding entanglement in World War I despite efforts by Germany and the Ottoman Empire to enlist Afghan support against Britain.
2. Centralised Governance:
   • Kabul, as the capital, was the seat of the Emir’s court and government. It housed key administrative institutions that oversaw the kingdom’s affairs, including foreign relations, taxation, and internal governance.
   • While the Emir maintained control over the central government, much of Afghanistan outside Kabul remained under tribal and local authority, with Kabul serving as the symbolic centre of national unity.
3. Geopolitical Significance:
   • Kabul’s location at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East gave it immense strategic value.
   • The city was closely monitored by both the British and Russian Empires, as part of the “Great Game” rivalry for influence in the region.

Economy and Trade

1. Economic Role:
   • Kabul was an important trading hub, facilitating commerce between Central Asia, Persia, and British India. Its markets were renowned for goods such as textiles, carpets, dried fruits, and jewellery.
   • The city was a centre for artisanal crafts, including weapons, leather goods, and embroidery, reflecting Afghanistan’s rich material culture.
2. Agriculture and Local Economy:
   • Surrounding Kabul, the fertile plains supported agriculture, with the production of grains, fruits, and nuts contributing to the city’s food supply.
   • The city’s reliance on traditional farming methods and limited industrialisation meant its economy was largely pre-modern, focused on subsistence and small-scale trade.
3. Connectivity:
   • Kabul was linked to other cities, such as Kandahar and Herat, by caravan routes. However, there were no modern railways or roads connecting the city to international markets, limiting its economic potential.

Social and Cultural Life

1. Ethnic and Religious Composition:
   • Kabul was a melting pot of ethnicities, primarily Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks, among others.
   • The city was predominantly Muslim, with Sunni Islam being the dominant sect, although a significant Shia Muslim minority also resided in the city.
2. Cultural Significance:
   • Kabul was a centre of Islamic learning and scholarship, home to madrassas (religious schools) that attracted students from across the region.
   • Poetry, music, and storytelling were integral to Kabul’s cultural life, with Persian and Pashto as the dominant languages of literature and art.
3. Traditional Architecture:
   • The city featured traditional Afghan architectural styles, with mud-brick houses, narrow streets, and bazaars.
   • Important landmarks included the Bala Hissar Fortress, which symbolised the city’s historical role as a seat of power, and various mosques and shrines that were central to community life.

Infrastructure and Urban Life

1. City Layout:
   • Kabul in 1917 was a small, compact city compared to modern standards, with a population estimated at around 50,000 to 70,000.
   • The city was divided into distinct areas, including the royal palace, administrative quarters, and bustling bazaars.
2. Public Amenities:
   • Urban infrastructure was limited. Access to clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities was rudimentary, relying on traditional systems such as karez (underground irrigation channels).
   • Electricity and modern communication technologies were beginning to be introduced, reflecting Emir Habibullah’s efforts at modernisation.
3. Bazaars and Markets:
   • Kabul’s bazaars, such as the Chaar Chatta Bazaar, were vibrant centres of commerce and social interaction, offering goods from across the region and serving as gathering places for the city’s residents.

Modernisation Efforts Under Emir Habibullah Khan

1. Education:
   • Habibullah Khan initiated educational reforms, promoting both traditional Islamic education and modern schooling.
   • He established schools such as the Habibia School, which offered a curriculum blending Islamic and modern subjects, aimed at producing educated elites to serve the kingdom.
2. Military and Infrastructure:
   • The Emir invested in strengthening the Afghan military, importing weapons and training officers to modernise the army.
   • Limited infrastructure projects, such as the construction of government buildings and improvements to roads, reflected Habibullah’s focus on gradual modernisation.
3. Foreign Relations:
   • While maintaining neutrality in World War I, Kabul became a focal point for foreign envoys seeking to influence Afghanistan.
   • Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Britain all sent delegations to Kabul, hoping to sway Emir Habibullah Khan’s policies. Despite these pressures, Habibullah maintained Afghanistan’s independence and refused to enter the conflict.

Challenges Facing Kabul in 1917

1. Geopolitical Pressures:
   • The ongoing “Great Game” rivalry between Britain and Russia made Kabul a hotspot of intrigue and diplomatic manoeuvring.
   • Afghanistan’s neutrality during World War I was tenuous, as foreign powers sought to exploit the country’s strategic position.
2. Limited Infrastructure:
   • The lack of modern transportation and communication systems hampered Kabul’s development and integration into regional and global markets.
   • Urban services were insufficient to meet the needs of a growing population.
3. Tribal Relations:
   • The central government in Kabul faced challenges in asserting authority over Afghanistan’s tribal regions, where local leaders held significant power and autonomy.
4. Economic Constraints:
   • Afghanistan’s economy remained underdeveloped, heavily reliant on subsistence agriculture and small-scale trade, with limited industrialisation or technological advancement.

Legacy of Kabul in 1917

Kabul in 1917 was a city at the crossroads of tradition and modernity. As the capital of a neutral and independent Afghanistan, it played a central role in the country’s cautious modernisation under Emir Habibullah Khan. The city’s rich cultural heritage, strategic location, and diverse population made it a focal point of Afghan identity. Despite its challenges, Kabul’s resilience and historical significance positioned it as a cornerstone of the kingdom’s efforts to navigate a complex geopolitical landscape while preserving its sovereignty.

‘The Great Game’: A Brief Description

The term “The Great Game” refers to the intense strategic rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily focused on control and influence over Central Asia. This geopolitical contest was driven by fears, ambitions, and the perceived need to safeguard imperial interests, especially the British desire to protect its Indian Empire and Russian aspirations to expand southward.

Origins and Background

1. Expansion of Empires:
   • By the early 19th century, the British Empire had consolidated its hold over the Indian subcontinent, making it the crown jewel of its colonial possessions.
   • Simultaneously, the Russian Empire was expanding southwards into Central Asia, bringing it closer to British India’s northern frontiers.
2. Napoleonic Wars:
   • The rivalry began partly due to Napoleon’s proposed alliance with Russia to invade India during the early 19th century. This plan heightened British fears of any external threats to their control over India.
3. Coining the Term:
   • The phrase “The Great Game” was popularised by British officer and writer Arthur Conolly in the 1830s and later immortalised in Rudyard Kipling’s novel Kim (1901). Conolly described it as a game of strategic manoeuvres and espionage played out on a vast chessboard stretching from Eastern Europe to India.

Key Objectives

1. British Aims:
   • Protect British India from perceived threats, particularly Russian expansion.
   • Secure key buffer states, such as Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), and Tibet, to create a defensive shield around India.
   • Dominate Central Asian trade routes to prevent Russian access to lucrative markets.
2. Russian Aims:
   • Expand southward to gain access to warm-water ports and secure its southern borders.
   • Extend influence over Persia, Afghanistan, and other Central Asian territories.
   • Challenge British dominance in the region to bolster its global power.

The Theatre of the Great Game

1. Central Asia:
   • The steppes, deserts, and mountains of Central Asia became the battleground for British and Russian manoeuvres. The Khanates of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand, though nominally independent, were key zones of interest for both powers.
2. Afghanistan:
   • Afghanistan was the primary focal point due to its strategic location as a buffer state between British India and Russian territories.
   • The British launched the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) to secure control over Afghanistan, but it ended disastrously for Britain.
3. Persia (Iran):
   • Both powers sought influence in Persia due to its proximity to India and access to the Persian Gulf. Persia’s weak central government made it vulnerable to foreign manipulation.
4. Tibet:
   • Though largely isolated, Tibet was another area of interest as both Britain and Russia sought to influence its rulers to secure their respective borders.

Major Phases of the Great Game

1. Early Encounters (1800–1830):
   • Initial contacts were marked by mutual suspicion as Russia expanded into the Caucasus and Central Asia, while Britain solidified its control over India.
   • The British East India Company established diplomatic missions in Persia and Afghanistan to monitor Russian advances.
2. Height of the Rivalry (1830–1880):
   • This period saw intense espionage, diplomacy, and military interventions.
   • The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) was Britain’s attempt to pre-empt Russian influence in Kabul. The war ended disastrously for Britain, with the near annihilation of its retreating forces.
   • Russia expanded into the Central Asian Khanates, annexing Tashkent (1865), Bukhara (1868), and Samarkand (1868), alarming the British.
3. The Pamir and Durand Agreements (1880–1907):
   • By the late 19th century, boundaries were formalised to reduce tensions:
     • The Pamir Agreement (1895) defined the Russo-British boundary in Central Asia.
     • The Durand Line (1893) demarcated the boundary between British India and Afghanistan.
4. The Anglo-Russian Convention (1907):
   • The rivalry officially ended with this agreement, dividing Central Asia into spheres of influence:
     • Persia was divided into northern (Russian) and southern (British) zones, with a neutral central zone.
     • Afghanistan was recognised as a British sphere of influence.
     • Tibet was declared a neutral buffer.

Espionage and Exploration

1. British Agents:
   • British officers, known as “political agents” or “players,” disguised themselves as merchants or travellers to gather intelligence.
   • Famous figures included Alexander Burnes, who explored Bukhara and Kabul, and Arthur Conolly, who coined the term “Great Game” but was executed in Bukhara.
2. Russian Agents:
   • Russian envoys and military officers infiltrated Central Asia, often posing as scientists or traders to gather intelligence and foster alliances with local rulers.
3. Cartographic Competition:
   • Both empires sent surveyors and explorers, such as the Pundits (Indian spies employed by the British), to map remote areas. Accurate maps were critical to claiming and controlling territories.

Impact on Central Asia

1. Colonial Domination:
   • Central Asia was transformed by Russian annexation, bringing modernisation to some areas but also causing significant upheaval in traditional societies.
   • British influence in Afghanistan and Persia led to political instability and periodic conflicts.
2. Disruption of Local Powers:
   • Local rulers and tribes were often manipulated or coerced into alliances, weakening their autonomy.
   • The Khanates of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand lost their independence to Russia by the late 19th century.
3. Cultural Exchange and Exploration:
   • The Great Game brought increased knowledge of Central Asia to the world through travelogues, maps, and reports.

Conclusion and Legacy

The Great Game formally ended with the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, as the two empires sought to align against the growing threat of Germany. However, its legacy continued into the 20th century, influencing regional politics and setting the stage for future conflicts in Afghanistan and Central Asia. The term “Great Game” is now used to describe geopolitical rivalries in the region, including those involving modern powers such as the United States, China, and Russia.

The Great Game remains a symbol of imperial ambition, diplomacy, espionage, and the enduring strategic significance of Central Asia. Its history highlights the complexities of power politics and the enduring struggle for influence in one of the world’s most contested regions.

Colonel S. G. Burrard: A Short Biography

Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard (1860–1943) was a prominent British geographer, geodesist, and surveyor, best known for his work as the Surveyor General of India from 1908 to 1919. His tenure at the Survey of India is remembered for significant contributions to the understanding and mapping of India’s complex terrain, particularly the Himalayas.

Key Contributions of Colonel Burrard:

1. Geodetic and Topographical Surveys:
   • Burrard was a leading figure in geodesy, the science of measuring and understanding the Earth’s geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. His work on triangulation surveys in India was vital in improving the accuracy of maps, particularly in remote and mountainous regions like Kashmir and the Himalayas.
   • Under his direction, the Survey of India undertook some of its most challenging projects, mapping the difficult terrain of British India, including Kashmir, which required precise measurements and detailed topographical studies.
2. Study of the Himalayas:
   • One of Colonel Burrard’s most renowned areas of focus was the Himalayas, particularly in determining the heights of the major peaks. He was involved in refining measurements of Mount Everest and other significant summits, contributing to a better understanding of the region’s geography.
   • His co-authored work, “A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet”, remains a notable publication, providing detailed analysis of the physical geography and geological features of the Himalayan region.
3. Publications and Theoretical Work:
   • Burrard published extensively on geodesy and geography. His research included discussions on the Great Trigonometrical Survey and its importance in the understanding of the Earth’s shape and the curvature of the Himalayas.
   • He was a key proponent of the theory of isostasy, which explained the balance of the Earth’s crust as it “floats” on the denser, underlying layers of the Earth’s mantle. His studies helped further the understanding of how mountain ranges like the Himalayas were supported by the Earth’s internal structure.
4. Survey of Kashmir:
   • During his tenure, the Survey of India published important surveys of the Kashmir Valley and other regions in northern India. The 1911 survey of Baramulla and Anantnag districts, which was published under Burrard’s direction in 1912, is an example of the detailed cartographic and geographical documentation carried out by his department.
   • These surveys were crucial for the British administration, as Kashmir’s strategic location made it a region of significant interest, not only for governance but also for military planning and economic development.
5. Recognition and Legacy:
   • For his services, Colonel Burrard was highly regarded by both his peers and the British government. His work laid the foundation for many subsequent advancements in geographical and geodetic sciences in India.
   • Burrard’s contributions continued to influence surveying and geographical practices in India well into the 20th century, with his legacy enduring in the field of geodesy and Himalayan studies.

Impact on British India:

Colonel Burrard’s tenure as Surveyor General coincided with a period when the British Empire placed immense importance on accurate mapping for both administrative and military purposes. The surveys carried out under his direction, including those in Kashmir and the North-West Frontier, were vital for understanding the physical landscape of one of the most geopolitically sensitive regions of the British Empire.

Burrard’s leadership in the Survey of India not only expanded the body of knowledge about India’s geography but also set standards for precision in surveying and mapping, which were essential for the governance, development, and defence of British India.

His work continues to be of historical importance, especially for geographers, historians, and those interested in colonial cartography. His surveys of Kashmir and other Himalayan regions remain key references in understanding the early 20th-century geography of these areas.

Heliozincography: A Short Description

Heliozincography is a printing process that was developed in the 19th century to reproduce maps, plans, and other illustrations with great detail. The term is derived from heliography (a photographic process using sunlight) and zincography (a method of printing using zinc plates).

Key Features of Heliozincography:

1. Combination of Photography and Printing:
   • Heliozincography involved transferring photographic images onto zinc plates, which could then be used to reproduce maps or drawings. The process started with a photograph of the original map or illustration, which was then used to prepare a printing plate.
2. Zinc Plates:
   • The process utilized zinc plates as the medium for printing, replacing traditional stone or copper plates that had been used earlier in lithography and engraving. Zinc offered a cheaper and faster alternative for producing detailed prints.
3. Application in Cartography:
   • Heliozincography was widely used for map reproduction, especially by government survey departments, including the Survey of India and the Ordnance Survey in Britain. It allowed the mass production of accurate and detailed maps.
   • For example, the Survey of India under Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard would have used heliozincography or similar methods to reproduce maps from surveys like the 1911 Baramulla and Anantnag survey.
4. Advantages:
   • Cost-effectiveness: Zinc plates were cheaper to produce than copper or stone plates.
   • Speed: It allowed for quicker production of multiple copies, which was especially useful for distributing maps and technical drawings.
   • Precision: The photographic component of the process ensured a high degree of accuracy in reproducing details.
5. Process:
   • The original image (such as a map or drawing) was photographed, and the photographic image was chemically transferred onto the surface of the zinc plate.
   • The plate was then treated with chemicals so that only the lines or details to be printed remained on the surface, while the rest was etched away.
   • Ink would adhere to the raised parts of the plate, and the image would be transferred onto paper through a printing press.

Historical Use:

• Survey of India: The heliozincograph was widely used by the Survey of India for producing accurate and reproducible maps of regions such as Kashmir. Given the difficulty in producing detailed maps of mountainous terrain, the precision of this process was essential for both administrative and military purposes.
• Ordnance Survey: In the UK, heliozincography was used by the Ordnance Survey to reproduce topographical maps with the necessary detail for military and civilian use.

Conclusion:

Heliozincography played a crucial role in the mass production of accurate, detailed maps and technical drawings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It combined the emerging technology of photography with traditional zinc plate printing, providing a fast, cost-effective method for disseminating important geographical and technical information, particularly in fields like cartography.

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