NORTH WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE – SEASON 1907 – 1908 – PESHAWAR DISTRICT AND NOAND TRIBAL TERRITORY – PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF COLONEL S G BURRARD SURVEYOR GENERAL OF INDIA 1913

Surveyor General: Colonel S. G. Burrard
Publisher: The Survey Of India, Calcutta
Price: £400
Publication Date: 1913
Edition: New edition
Format: Heliozincograph
Condition: In very good condition, unframed
Sheet Size: Sheet Size: 55.4cm x 76.8cm
Scale: 1:63360 or 1 inch to 1 mile

Condition:

Sheet No. 38 0/13.  A detailed map of the region on a good scale of 1 inch to 1 mile. Includes the districts of Peshawar, Nowshera and Hassankhel. Covers very slightly dusty and marked. Dissected onto linen into 32 sections. Original fold lines. Minor wear to the fold intersections with a very minor amount of loss. Very minor age toning and marks. Reverse is blank with very minor age toning and marks. In very good, original and unrestored condition. Very scarce.

Location: Map Drawer C: FS: Folder 1220 002478

Noohani (Noand) Tribal Territory: A Brief Description

In 1907-08, the Noohani Tribal Territory was situated in what is today the Sindh Province of Pakistan and extended into parts of Baluchistan, which at the time were under the administration of British India. The early 20th century was a period marked by the influence of British colonial rule, but the Noohani tribe retained much of its traditional way of life, governed by longstanding customs and social structures.

Geography and Landscape

The territory was predominantly arid and rugged, comprising rolling plains, rocky outcrops, and dry riverbeds. The Indus River and its tributaries were lifelines for the region, providing water for agriculture and sustaining both human and animal populations. The riverbanks were more fertile, supporting small-scale farming, while the surrounding plains and hills were used primarily for grazing livestock.

The climate was harsh, with searing heat during the summer months and cooler temperatures in the winter. The landscape was dotted with acacia trees, thorny shrubs, and sparse grasses, with water sources often located far apart. Villages and settlements were strategically placed near wells or streams, ensuring access to fresh water, which was a scarce and precious resource.

Economy and Subsistence

The economy of the Noohani tribe in 1907-08 relied heavily on pastoralism and limited agriculture. The tribe raised a variety of livestock, including goats, sheep, camels, and cattle, which were well-adapted to the arid conditions. These animals were essential not only for subsistence but also as a form of wealth and trade. Animal products such as wool, hides, and milk were important commodities, while meat provided sustenance for the community.

Agriculture was practised in the more fertile areas, with crops like wheat, barley, and millet being grown. However, the success of farming depended heavily on the seasonal availability of water, and the tribe often had to adapt their practices based on the unpredictable climate. The Noohani people also engaged in trade with neighbouring tribes and towns, exchanging livestock and crafted goods for grains, cloth, and other necessities.

Social Structure and Governance

The social structure of the Noohani tribe was deeply rooted in tribal customs and traditions, with governance carried out by a council of elders and a tribal chief. The chief was a figure of great authority and respect, responsible for leading the tribe, making key decisions, and mediating disputes. The British colonial administration often dealt with these tribal leaders when seeking to enforce laws or collect taxes.

Clans and extended families formed the core of Noohani society, with a strong emphasis on kinship and mutual support. Social cohesion was maintained through shared responsibilities and communal living, with each member contributing to the well-being of the tribe. Marriages were typically arranged within the tribe or with neighbouring tribes, reinforcing alliances and social bonds.

Cultural Practices and Traditions

The Noohani people in 1907-08 had a vibrant cultural heritage, expressed through oral storytelling, poetry, music, and dance. These traditions were passed down from generation to generation, serving as a means of preserving the tribe’s history and values. Folk songs often told tales of heroism, the beauty of the land, and the hardships of life in the arid environment.

The Noohani were known for their handicrafts, particularly in weaving and embroidery. Women played a crucial role in creating intricately designed textiles, which were used both domestically and as trade items. These crafts often featured patterns inspired by the natural world and held symbolic meaning within the tribe.

Religious practices were an integral part of daily life, with the Noohani people being devout Muslims. They observed Islamic traditions and festivals, and religious leaders held significant influence within the community. Spiritual beliefs were often intertwined with respect for the natural environment, and certain landmarks, such as sacred trees or hills, were revered as places of spiritual importance.

Relationship with the British Colonial Administration

In 1907-08, the Noohani Tribal Territory was under the administration of the British Raj, and the colonial government sought to exert control over the region through a combination of treaties and local alliances. The British were interested in maintaining peace among the various tribes to ensure stability and secure trade routes. As such, they often relied on the cooperation of tribal chiefs and elders, who acted as intermediaries between the colonial authorities and the tribal population.

While the Noohani tribe had to navigate the complexities of colonial rule, they managed to preserve much of their autonomy, especially in matters related to internal governance and cultural practices. The British presence did bring changes, such as the imposition of taxes and regulations on trade, but the Noohani people remained resilient, adapting to the new political landscape while holding on to their ancestral traditions.

Hassankhel District: A Brief Description

In 1907, the Hassankhel area was part of the Frontier Region (FR) Peshawar, located in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India. This region was part of the frontier belt, an area known for its rugged landscape, strategic importance, and tribal inhabitants, who were fiercely independent and resistant to foreign rule. The British administration had a tenuous hold on the region, relying on local tribal alliances to maintain control.

Geography and Landscape

Hassankhel was characterised by a mountainous and rugged terrain, with steep hills, rocky cliffs, and narrow valleys. The landscape was mostly arid, with limited vegetation, consisting of thorny bushes, wild grasses, and occasional patches of scrub forest. The area’s geography made it difficult for the British to establish a permanent presence, as the natural features provided defensive advantages to the local tribes.

The climate of Hassankhel in 1907 was harsh and dry, with extremely hot summers and relatively cold winters. Water was a precious resource, with the local population relying on seasonal streams, wells, and small springs for their water supply. The harsh environment required the people to be resilient and resourceful, adapting their way of life to survive in these challenging conditions.

Tribal Society and Culture

The Hassankhel tribe, a subgroup of the larger Pashtun ethnic group, dominated the area. The tribe followed the traditional Pashtun tribal code, Pashtunwali, which emphasised values such as honour, hospitality, revenge, and loyalty to one’s clan. The social structure was hierarchical and clan-based, with tribal elders holding authority over community matters and disputes. Decisions were made collectively in Jirgas (tribal councils), where respected elders mediated conflicts and enforced tribal customs.

The people of Hassankhel lived in fortified villages and compounds, known as hujras and khels, which provided protection from rival tribes and external threats. These settlements were typically constructed from mud, stone, and wood, designed to withstand both the elements and attacks. The community was tightly knit, with extended families often living together and sharing resources.

Agriculture and livestock rearing were the primary means of livelihood for the people of Hassankhel in 1907. The harsh climate and rocky soil made farming difficult, but the locals grew crops such as wheat, maize, and barley in small, terraced plots. Livestock, including sheep, goats, and camels, played a crucial role in their economy, providing milk, meat, wool, and a means of transportation.

Interaction with the British Administration

In 1907, the British administration had a limited but significant influence over the Hassankhel area. The British used a policy of indirect rule, dealing with the tribal leaders to maintain order and secure the frontier. The Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR) governed the area, giving the British authorities the power to punish entire tribes for the actions of individuals and to impose collective fines. However, the British often faced resistance from the local population, who valued their autonomy and were unwilling to submit to foreign rule.

The political and military significance of Hassankhel lay in its location near the border with Afghanistan and the Khyber Pass, a crucial trade and military route. The British maintained a network of forts and garrisons in the surrounding areas to monitor tribal activities and defend against potential incursions from Afghanistan. The tribal uprisings and skirmishes were common, as the Pashtun tribes, including the Hassankhel, frequently resisted British control and attempted to assert their independence.

Culture and Traditions

The cultural practices of the Hassankhel people in 1907 were deeply rooted in Pashtun traditions. Poetry, music, and oral storytelling were highly valued, with local poets and musicians often recounting tales of heroism, love, and tribal honour. Traditional Pashtun music, played on instruments such as the rabab and dhol, accompanied celebrations and gatherings.

Religious practices were centred around Islam, which was the dominant faith in the region. Religious leaders, or mullahs, held significant influence within the community, and the local mosques served as centres for both worship and social gatherings. Islamic festivals, such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, were celebrated with enthusiasm, bringing families and neighbours together for communal prayers and feasts.

Nowshera District: A Brief Description

In 1907, Nowshera was a key district in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan). The region was of strategic importance to the British Empire, as it served as a gateway to the tribal areas and the wider Afghan frontier. The district was heavily influenced by both its geographical features and its position along crucial trade and military routes.

Geography and Climate

The landscape of Nowshera in 1907 was defined by the Kabul River, which flowed through the district and provided essential irrigation for agriculture. The region consisted of fertile plains, which were ideal for farming, and hilly terrain to the north and west, offering natural defences and scenic vistas. The climate was semi-arid, with hot, dry summers and relatively cooler winters. The river and the surrounding areas were prone to seasonal flooding during the monsoon months, which shaped agricultural practices.

Military Significance

In 1907, Nowshera was a crucial military garrison for the British Indian Army. The British had established a significant military presence in the area to maintain control over the North-West Frontier and to monitor the tribal regions, which were known for their fierce resistance to foreign rule. The Nowshera Cantonment was one of the largest and most strategically important military bases in the region, complete with barracks, training grounds, and supply depots.

The British forces stationed in Nowshera played a key role in various military campaigns and in securing trade routes through the Khyber Pass. The area also served as a staging ground for expeditions into the tribal territories and beyond, ensuring the British could exert influence over the turbulent frontier region.

Infrastructure and Transportation

The infrastructure in Nowshera in 1907 was developed with a focus on military and administrative needs. The Grand Trunk Road (GT Road), one of the oldest and longest roads in the Indian subcontinent, passed through Nowshera, connecting it to major cities like Peshawar to the west and Rawalpindi to the east. The road was crucial for the movement of troops and supplies, as well as for trade and communication.

The railway line that ran through Nowshera was another vital part of the colonial infrastructure, linking the district to the broader railway network of British India. The railway was used extensively for transporting soldiers, equipment, and goods, making it a lifeline for both military and economic activities.

Economy and Agriculture

The economy of Nowshera in 1907 was primarily agricultural, with most of the population engaged in farming and animal husbandry. The fertile plains along the Kabul River were used to grow crops such as wheat, barley, sugarcane, and maize. Irrigation systems, often constructed and maintained under British supervision, played a critical role in supporting agriculture, especially given the region’s semi-arid climate.

Trade was also a significant aspect of the local economy, facilitated by the district’s strategic location along major routes. Markets in Nowshera were bustling with activity, selling goods ranging from agricultural produce to handicrafts and imported items from other parts of British India.

Society and Culture

The people of Nowshera in 1907 were predominantly Pashtun, with tribal traditions and customs deeply embedded in social life. Pashto was the main language spoken, and the culture was heavily influenced by tribal values, such as honour, hospitality, and a strong sense of community. Extended families and clans formed the basic social units, with tribal elders holding considerable authority in local governance and dispute resolution.

Religious practices were centred around Islam, which played a vital role in daily life. Mosques were not only places of worship but also centres for community gatherings and the dissemination of news. Religious festivals, such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, were celebrated with great enthusiasm, bringing families and neighbours together.

British Administration and Interaction

Under British rule, Nowshera was part of the administrative framework of the North-West Frontier Province, a region known for its frequent uprisings and tribal skirmishes. The British authorities implemented a policy of indirect rule, working through local tribal leaders and using a combination of diplomacy and military force to maintain order. The Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR), a set of laws specific to the region, was used to control the local population and manage conflicts.

The British also invested in infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges, and irrigation systems, to facilitate both economic development and military efficiency. However, the relationship between the British and the local population was often tense, marked by a series of uprisings and resistance movements against colonial rule.

Cultural Practices and Traditions

Despite the presence of the British, the people of Nowshera retained much of their traditional culture. Storytelling, music, and poetry were important aspects of Pashtun culture, with oral traditions used to pass down history and values from one generation to the next. The traditional Pashtun code of conduct, known as Pashtunwali, dictated social behaviour and emphasised principles such as hospitality, revenge, and the protection of honour.

The local bazaars were centres of social and economic life, where people gathered not only to trade but also to discuss news and share stories. The artisan community in Nowshera was known for producing high-quality textiles, pottery, and metalwork, which were sold both locally and in distant markets.

Peshawar District: A Brief Description

In 1907, Peshawar District was a key administrative and strategic area in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of British India (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan). The district’s location on the north-western frontier made it an essential hub for trade, military activities, and colonial administration, especially given its proximity to the Khyber Pass, which served as a gateway to Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Geography and Climate

Peshawar District in 1907 was characterised by a diverse landscape that included the Peshawar Valley, surrounded by rugged hills and mountains to the west and north. The Kabul River flowed through the district, nourishing the fertile plains and making the region agriculturally productive. The valley was known for its lush greenery, especially in the areas near the river, which were well-irrigated and suitable for farming.

The climate of Peshawar was continental, with hot summers and cool winters. The summer months could be quite harsh, with temperatures often rising above 40°C, while winters were relatively mild and could sometimes bring light frost. The region also experienced occasional rainfall, especially during the monsoon season, which was crucial for agriculture.

Strategic and Military Importance

Peshawar’s significance to the British Empire lay in its strategic position as a frontier city. It was the most important British outpost on the border with Afghanistan, serving as a base for both military operations and diplomacy. The city was heavily fortified, with a large British garrison stationed there to defend against possible incursions from Afghan tribes and to maintain control over the surrounding areas.

The Khyber Pass, located to the west of Peshawar, was one of the main routes into Afghanistan and Central Asia. The British closely monitored and controlled this pass, recognising its importance for both trade and military strategy. The presence of forts and outposts along the pass ensured that the British could respond quickly to any threats from the tribal areas or beyond.

Infrastructure and Urban Life

By 1907, Peshawar had developed into a bustling urban centre with a mix of traditional and colonial architecture. The Old City of Peshawar was a labyrinth of narrow streets, crowded bazaars, and historic buildings, while the areas developed by the British featured wider roads, government offices, and military cantonments. The British had invested in the construction of roads, railway lines, and bridges to facilitate the movement of troops and goods.

The Peshawar Cantonment was a well-established military area, complete with barracks, training grounds, and administrative offices. It was separated from the Old City and housed British officials, soldiers, and their families. The cantonment area was equipped with modern amenities for the time, including hospitals, schools, and clubs for the colonial elite.

The Peshawar Railway Station was a crucial part of the infrastructure, connecting the district to the rest of British India and facilitating the transport of goods and troops. The railway network was instrumental in maintaining British control over the frontier region.

Economy and Trade

The economy of Peshawar in 1907 was vibrant and diverse, with trade, agriculture, and crafts playing significant roles. The city was a major trading centre, with goods flowing in from Afghanistan, Central Asia, and other parts of British India. The bazaars of Peshawar were famous for their variety, offering items such as silk, spices, carpets, weapons, and jewellery. The Qissa Khwani Bazaar (Storytellers’ Bazaar) was a particularly renowned marketplace, where traders and travellers gathered to exchange not only goods but also stories and news.

Agriculture was the backbone of the rural economy, with crops like wheat, barley, sugarcane, and maize grown in the fertile plains of the Peshawar Valley. The Kabul River and an extensive network of canals provided water for irrigation, ensuring good harvests. Livestock rearing was also common, with cattle, sheep, and goats being raised for both domestic use and trade.

Society and Culture

The population of Peshawar in 1907 was a mix of Pashtuns, Hindus, Sikhs, and smaller communities of traders from Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Pashto was the dominant language, but Hindko, Persian, and Urdu were also widely spoken, reflecting the district’s diverse cultural influences. The city had a rich cultural heritage, with traditions rooted in the Pashtun tribal code (Pashtunwali), which emphasised values such as hospitality, honour, and revenge.

Peshawar was known for its arts and crafts, with skilled artisans producing items like pottery, woodwork, and intricately woven carpets. Music and poetry were integral parts of social life, with traditional Pashtun music and the recitation of epic poetry celebrated at gatherings and festivals.

Religious practices in Peshawar were dominated by Islam, but the city also had significant communities of Hindus and Sikhs, who played important roles in trade and crafts. Religious harmony was generally maintained, although tensions occasionally arose, especially given the political and social changes brought about by British rule. Mosques, Hindu temples, and Sikh gurdwaras coexisted in the city, and religious festivals were celebrated with great enthusiasm.

British Administration and Influence

In 1907, Peshawar was under the administration of the British Raj, and the district was governed as part of the North-West Frontier Province. The Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR) was enforced in the region, granting the British authorities wide-ranging powers to control the local population and deal with tribal disputes. The British also established a system of alliances with local tribal leaders, using both diplomacy and military force to maintain order.

The British presence brought about significant changes, including the introduction of Western-style education, medical services, and infrastructure projects. However, the local population often resisted British rule, and the district remained a hotbed of political and tribal unrest. The British had to manage frequent skirmishes and uprisings, especially from the fiercely independent tribes living in the surrounding hills.

Colonel S. G. Burrard: A Short Biography

Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard (1860–1943) was a prominent British geographer, geodesist, and surveyor, best known for his work as the Surveyor General of India from 1908 to 1919. His tenure at the Survey of India is remembered for significant contributions to the understanding and mapping of India’s complex terrain, particularly the Himalayas.

Key Contributions of Colonel Burrard:

1. Geodetic and Topographical Surveys:
   • Burrard was a leading figure in geodesy, the science of measuring and understanding the Earth’s geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. His work on triangulation surveys in India was vital in improving the accuracy of maps, particularly in remote and mountainous regions like Kashmir and the Himalayas.
   • Under his direction, the Survey of India undertook some of its most challenging projects, mapping the difficult terrain of British India, including Kashmir, which required precise measurements and detailed topographical studies.
2. Study of the Himalayas:
   • One of Colonel Burrard’s most renowned areas of focus was the Himalayas, particularly in determining the heights of the major peaks. He was involved in refining measurements of Mount Everest and other significant summits, contributing to a better understanding of the region’s geography.
   • His co-authored work, “A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet”, remains a notable publication, providing detailed analysis of the physical geography and geological features of the Himalayan region.
3. Publications and Theoretical Work:
   • Burrard published extensively on geodesy and geography. His research included discussions on the Great Trigonometrical Survey and its importance in the understanding of the Earth’s shape and the curvature of the Himalayas.
   • He was a key proponent of the theory of isostasy, which explained the balance of the Earth’s crust as it “floats” on the denser, underlying layers of the Earth’s mantle. His studies helped further the understanding of how mountain ranges like the Himalayas were supported by the Earth’s internal structure.
4. Survey of Kashmir:
   • During his tenure, the Survey of India published important surveys of the Kashmir Valley and other regions in northern India. The 1911 survey of Baramulla and Anantnag districts, which was published under Burrard’s direction in 1912, is an example of the detailed cartographic and geographical documentation carried out by his department.
   • These surveys were crucial for the British administration, as Kashmir’s strategic location made it a region of significant interest, not only for governance but also for military planning and economic development.
5. Recognition and Legacy:
   • For his services, Colonel Burrard was highly regarded by both his peers and the British government. His work laid the foundation for many subsequent advancements in geographical and geodetic sciences in India.
   • Burrard’s contributions continued to influence surveying and geographical practices in India well into the 20th century, with his legacy enduring in the field of geodesy and Himalayan studies.

Impact on British India:

Colonel Burrard’s tenure as Surveyor General coincided with a period when the British Empire placed immense importance on accurate mapping for both administrative and military purposes. The surveys carried out under his direction, including those in Kashmir and the North-West Frontier, were vital for understanding the physical landscape of one of the most geopolitically sensitive regions of the British Empire.

Burrard’s leadership in the Survey of India not only expanded the body of knowledge about India’s geography but also set standards for precision in surveying and mapping, which were essential for the governance, development, and defence of British India.

His work continues to be of historical importance, especially for geographers, historians, and those interested in colonial cartography. His surveys of Kashmir and other Himalayan regions remain key references in understanding the early 20th-century geography of these areas.

Heliozincography: A Short Description

Heliozincography is a printing process that was developed in the 19th century to reproduce maps, plans, and other illustrations with great detail. The term is derived from heliography (a photographic process using sunlight) and zincography (a method of printing using zinc plates).

Key Features of Heliozincography:

1. Combination of Photography and Printing:
   • Heliozincography involved transferring photographic images onto zinc plates, which could then be used to reproduce maps or drawings. The process started with a photograph of the original map or illustration, which was then used to prepare a printing plate.
2. Zinc Plates:
   • The process utilized zinc plates as the medium for printing, replacing traditional stone or copper plates that had been used earlier in lithography and engraving. Zinc offered a cheaper and faster alternative for producing detailed prints.
3. Application in Cartography:
   • Heliozincography was widely used for map reproduction, especially by government survey departments, including the Survey of India and the Ordnance Survey in Britain. It allowed the mass production of accurate and detailed maps.
   • For example, the Survey of India under Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard would have used heliozincography or similar methods to reproduce maps from surveys like the 1911 Baramulla and Anantnag survey.
4. Advantages:
   • Cost-effectiveness: Zinc plates were cheaper to produce than copper or stone plates.
   • Speed: It allowed for quicker production of multiple copies, which was especially useful for distributing maps and technical drawings.
   • Precision: The photographic component of the process ensured a high degree of accuracy in reproducing details.
5. Process:
   • The original image (such as a map or drawing) was photographed, and the photographic image was chemically transferred onto the surface of the zinc plate.
   • The plate was then treated with chemicals so that only the lines or details to be printed remained on the surface, while the rest was etched away.
   • Ink would adhere to the raised parts of the plate, and the image would be transferred onto paper through a printing press.

Historical Use:

• Survey of India: The heliozincograph was widely used by the Survey of India for producing accurate and reproducible maps of regions such as Kashmir. Given the difficulty in producing detailed maps of mountainous terrain, the precision of this process was essential for both administrative and military purposes.
• Ordnance Survey: In the UK, heliozincography was used by the Ordnance Survey to reproduce topographical maps with the necessary detail for military and civilian use.

Conclusion:

Heliozincography played a crucial role in the mass production of accurate, detailed maps and technical drawings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It combined the emerging technology of photography with traditional zinc plate printing, providing a fast, cost-effective method for disseminating important geographical and technical information, particularly in fields like cartography.

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