INDIA AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES SHEET NO. 34 – AFGHANISTAN BALUCHISTAN AND SIND – QUETTA – FIRST EDITION – PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF COLONEL S G BURRARD SURVEYOR GENERAL OF INDIA 1917

Surveyor General: Colonel S. G. Burrard
Publisher: The Survey Of India, Calcutta
Price: £275
Publication Date: 1917
Edition: 1st edition
Format: Heliozincograph
Condition: In very good condition, unframed
Sheet Size: Sheet Size: 46.5cm x 57.8cm
Scale: 1:1000000 or 1 inch to 16 miles

Condition:

Sheet No. 34.  A detailed map of the region on a good scale of 1 inch to 16 miles at an important time in the history of Quetta. Covers very slightly dusty and marked. Original fold lines. Railway line from Sibi to Ghazni and Kabul marked in pencil to the right hand margin. Minor wear to the fold intersections with a small amount of loss. Reverse is blank with very minor age toning and marks. In very good, original and unrestored condition. Very scarce.

Location: Map Drawer C: FS: Folder 1220 002508

Quetta in 1917: A Brief Account

In 1917, Quetta was a significant administrative and military hub within British India, located in the province of Baluchistan (now Balochistan, Pakistan). Its strategic location near the borders of Afghanistan and Persia (modern-day Iran) made it a key outpost for British colonial interests, particularly during the volatile period of the First World War (1914–1918). Quetta was a vital centre for military operations, trade, and governance, while its cultural and social fabric reflected the diversity of the region.

Quetta Under British Rule (1917)

1. Strategic Importance:
   • Quetta’s location near the Bolān Pass and Khojak Pass made it a critical entry point to Afghanistan and a key part of the British “Forward Policy,” aimed at securing the North-West Frontier against potential Russian expansion (the “Great Game”).
   • During World War I, Quetta’s military significance grew as the British used it to secure the western frontier of India and counter any perceived threats from German-backed Ottoman forces or Russian influences in Central Asia.
2. Military Presence:
   • The city was heavily militarised, hosting the Quetta Cantonment, which was established in the late 19th century.
   • Quetta became a central training and deployment site for the British Indian Army, with facilities such as the Command and Staff College (founded in 1905) playing a pivotal role in training officers.
   • The cantonment also served as a logistics hub for troop movements and supplies during the war.

Governance and Administration:

• Quetta was under the jurisdiction of the Baluchistan Agency, which was part of the British Raj.
• The city was administered by a Political Agent, who reported to the Governor-General’s Agent in Baluchistan, headquartered in Quetta. The political structure was designed to maintain British influence over the semi-autonomous Khanate of Kalat and other tribal regions.
• The British established strong control over the region, balancing direct rule in Quetta with indirect rule over surrounding tribal areas, mediated through agreements with local tribal leaders.

Economy and Trade:

• Quetta was an important trade hub due to its location on key routes connecting British India with Afghanistan and Persia. Caravans passed through the city, bringing goods such as dried fruits, carpets, and textiles.
• Agriculture played a role in the local economy, with Quetta already earning its reputation for orchards producing apples, pomegranates, and apricots.

Infrastructure Development:

• The Quetta-Pishin Railway, completed in the late 19th century, connected Quetta to the Indian railway network, facilitating the movement of goods, troops, and people. By 1917, the railway was a crucial element of British military and economic logistics.
• Roads connecting Quetta to surrounding tribal areas and the Bolān Pass were also improved to enhance accessibility and control.

Social and Cultural Life:

• Quetta in 1917 was a multi-ethnic city, home to Pashtuns, Baloch, Hazara, and other communities. The Hazara community, who migrated to the region after fleeing persecution in Afghanistan, formed a significant part of Quetta’s population.
• The city’s cultural fabric reflected its diversity, with bazaars bustling with traders and artisans. Local crafts, such as embroidery and carpet weaving, were common.
• British officers and their families introduced colonial social norms and established clubs, churches, and schools for Europeans, creating a distinct colonial enclave within the city.

Impact of World War I:

• The global conflict influenced Quetta’s military and political significance. The British strengthened defences in the region to counter potential threats from Afghanistan, which maintained neutrality but was a region of interest for German and Ottoman influences.
• Local soldiers from Baluchistan and the broader British Indian Army were recruited to fight in various theatres of the war, including Mesopotamia and Europe.

Challenges in Quetta (1917):

1. Earthquake Risk:
   • Quetta was known for its seismic activity, having experienced destructive earthquakes in the past. The city’s colonial architecture, including military structures, was designed to withstand such risks.
2. Tribal Relations:
   • The British faced continual challenges in maintaining control over the fiercely independent tribal areas surrounding Quetta. They relied on a mix of military presence and treaties with tribal leaders to keep the peace.
3. Public Services:
   • While the cantonment and European areas were well-planned with basic amenities, the native population had limited access to healthcare, education, and other services.

Quetta’s Role in the Wider Region:

• Quetta was a focal point in the British strategy to safeguard their Indian Empire’s north-western frontier. Its position near the Durand Line, the boundary demarcating British India and Afghanistan, made it a key site for monitoring Afghan and tribal affairs.
• The city’s proximity to the Persian Gulf trade routes also heightened its strategic importance.

Legacy of Quetta in 1917:

Quetta in 1917 exemplified the British Raj’s approach to governance, blending military strength with administrative control in a frontier region. It was a city of contrasts, where colonial modernity coexisted with the traditional lifestyles of its diverse population. Its strategic importance, economic role, and cultural vibrancy made it a cornerstone of British interests in Baluchistan and a gateway to Central Asia. The developments of this period laid the groundwork for its continued importance in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Kandahar in 1917: A Brief Description

In 1917, Kandahar, one of Afghanistan’s most significant cities, was a vital centre for trade, culture, and politics. Situated in southern Afghanistan, Kandahar has historically held strategic importance due to its location on trade routes connecting Central Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East. During this period, Kandahar was part of the Kingdom of Afghanistan, under the rule of Emir Habibullah Khan (reigned 1901–1919), whose policies aimed to maintain Afghanistan’s neutrality during the turbulent years of the First World War.

Political Context

1. Kingdom of Afghanistan:
   • Kandahar was under the control of the Kingdom of Afghanistan, which was an independent state. Emir Habibullah Khan maintained a policy of neutrality during World War I, carefully balancing relations with both the British Empire and the Central Powers.
   • The city served as a key administrative centre in southern Afghanistan, under the governance of local officials loyal to the Emir.
2. Anglo-Afghan Relations:
   • By 1917, Afghanistan’s foreign policy was heavily influenced by its proximity to British India. Following the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880), the Treaty of Gandamak (1879) had ceded control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British, though Afghanistan retained domestic autonomy.
   • Kandahar’s location near the Durand Line, the border established between Afghanistan and British India in 1893, made it a focal point for Anglo-Afghan interactions. This border remained contentious, as many Pashtun tribes straddled both sides.
3. World War I and Regional Dynamics:
   • While Afghanistan remained officially neutral, the region around Kandahar saw heightened tensions due to German and Ottoman efforts to encourage anti-British sentiment in Afghanistan as part of their broader strategy against the British Empire.
   • Kandahar’s proximity to the tribal frontier areas made it a potential flashpoint for conflict, though Emir Habibullah’s strict control prevented significant upheaval.

Economic and Strategic Importance

1. Trade Hub:
   • Kandahar was a critical node on the ancient Silk Road, connecting Afghanistan to Persia (modern-day Iran), British India, and Central Asia.
   • The city was known for its bustling bazaars, where goods such as dried fruits, carpets, textiles, and spices were traded. Exports from Kandahar included pomegranates, grapes, and apricots, reflecting the region’s fertile agricultural base.
2. Strategic Location:
   • As a gateway to southern Afghanistan, Kandahar held immense strategic value for controlling trade and military movements.
   • The city’s location made it a significant administrative and logistical base for the Emir’s government in the south.
3. Agriculture:
   • The fertile Arghandab River Valley supported extensive agriculture around Kandahar, with crops including fruits, wheat, and barley. The region’s agricultural productivity made Kandahar a vital source of revenue and sustenance for the kingdom.

Social and Cultural Landscape

1. Ethnic Composition:
   • Kandahar was predominantly inhabited by Pashtuns, particularly the Durrani tribes, who historically held political and military power in Afghanistan.
   • Other ethnic groups, such as Tajiks and Hazaras, were present in smaller numbers, contributing to the city’s cultural diversity.
2. Religious Influence:
   • Islam was the dominant religion, and Kandahar was a centre for Islamic learning and culture. Mosques and madrassas (Islamic schools) were integral to the city’s life.
   • The Shrine of the Cloak of the Prophet Muhammad, located in Kandahar, held immense religious significance and was a focal point of reverence for Afghan Muslims.
3. Traditional Crafts:
   • Kandahar was renowned for its traditional crafts, including carpet weaving, pottery, and jewellery. These artisanal products were both a source of local pride and a commodity for trade.

Infrastructure and Urban Development

1. City Layout:
   • Kandahar retained its historical layout, with a central citadel and narrow streets lined with bazaars and residential areas.
   • The city’s fortifications, including the Old City Walls, reflected its historical need for defence against invaders.
2. Transportation:
   • Although the city was not connected to modern railways or significant road networks, traditional caravan routes linked Kandahar to other Afghan cities, such as Herat and Kabul, and neighbouring regions in Persia and British India.
3. Public Services:
   • Urban infrastructure was relatively basic by modern standards, with limited public amenities such as water supply or sanitation systems. The city relied on traditional methods for irrigation, including karez (underground water channels).

Challenges Facing Kandahar in 1917

1. Geopolitical Pressures:
   • The city’s location near the British-controlled frontier made it vulnerable to cross-border influences and tribal unrest. Tribes in the surrounding areas often resisted central authority, creating challenges for governance.
   • The broader dynamics of the First World War brought the risk of foreign interference, though Kandahar itself remained stable under Emir Habibullah’s rule.
2. Economic Limitations:
   • Despite its role as a trade hub, Kandahar’s economy was primarily agrarian and lacked industrial development.
   • The lack of modern transportation infrastructure limited the city’s integration with broader regional markets.
3. Social Disparities:
   • Tribal and ethnic divisions occasionally led to tensions, although these were generally mitigated by the city’s strong Pashtun identity and loyalty to the Emir.

Legacy and Significance

In 1917, Kandahar was a city of regional importance, deeply rooted in Afghanistan’s history and culture. It served as a crucial centre for trade, agriculture, and governance in the south, while its strategic location ensured its continued relevance in regional politics. Though its development lagged behind other cities like Kabul, Kandahar’s role as a cultural and economic hub positioned it as a cornerstone of Afghan identity during a period of relative stability under Emir Habibullah Khan’s rule.

Colonel S. G. Burrard: A Short Biography

Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard (1860–1943) was a prominent British geographer, geodesist, and surveyor, best known for his work as the Surveyor General of India from 1908 to 1919. His tenure at the Survey of India is remembered for significant contributions to the understanding and mapping of India’s complex terrain, particularly the Himalayas.

Key Contributions of Colonel Burrard:

1. Geodetic and Topographical Surveys:
   • Burrard was a leading figure in geodesy, the science of measuring and understanding the Earth’s geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. His work on triangulation surveys in India was vital in improving the accuracy of maps, particularly in remote and mountainous regions like Kashmir and the Himalayas.
   • Under his direction, the Survey of India undertook some of its most challenging projects, mapping the difficult terrain of British India, including Kashmir, which required precise measurements and detailed topographical studies.
2. Study of the Himalayas:
   • One of Colonel Burrard’s most renowned areas of focus was the Himalayas, particularly in determining the heights of the major peaks. He was involved in refining measurements of Mount Everest and other significant summits, contributing to a better understanding of the region’s geography.
   • His co-authored work, “A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet”, remains a notable publication, providing detailed analysis of the physical geography and geological features of the Himalayan region.
3. Publications and Theoretical Work:
   • Burrard published extensively on geodesy and geography. His research included discussions on the Great Trigonometrical Survey and its importance in the understanding of the Earth’s shape and the curvature of the Himalayas.
   • He was a key proponent of the theory of isostasy, which explained the balance of the Earth’s crust as it “floats” on the denser, underlying layers of the Earth’s mantle. His studies helped further the understanding of how mountain ranges like the Himalayas were supported by the Earth’s internal structure.
4. Survey of Kashmir:
   • During his tenure, the Survey of India published important surveys of the Kashmir Valley and other regions in northern India. The 1911 survey of Baramulla and Anantnag districts, which was published under Burrard’s direction in 1912, is an example of the detailed cartographic and geographical documentation carried out by his department.
   • These surveys were crucial for the British administration, as Kashmir’s strategic location made it a region of significant interest, not only for governance but also for military planning and economic development.
5. Recognition and Legacy:
   • For his services, Colonel Burrard was highly regarded by both his peers and the British government. His work laid the foundation for many subsequent advancements in geographical and geodetic sciences in India.
   • Burrard’s contributions continued to influence surveying and geographical practices in India well into the 20th century, with his legacy enduring in the field of geodesy and Himalayan studies.

Impact on British India:

Colonel Burrard’s tenure as Surveyor General coincided with a period when the British Empire placed immense importance on accurate mapping for both administrative and military purposes. The surveys carried out under his direction, including those in Kashmir and the North-West Frontier, were vital for understanding the physical landscape of one of the most geopolitically sensitive regions of the British Empire.

Burrard’s leadership in the Survey of India not only expanded the body of knowledge about India’s geography but also set standards for precision in surveying and mapping, which were essential for the governance, development, and defence of British India.

His work continues to be of historical importance, especially for geographers, historians, and those interested in colonial cartography. His surveys of Kashmir and other Himalayan regions remain key references in understanding the early 20th-century geography of these areas.

Heliozincography: A Short Description

Heliozincography is a printing process that was developed in the 19th century to reproduce maps, plans, and other illustrations with great detail. The term is derived from heliography (a photographic process using sunlight) and zincography (a method of printing using zinc plates).

Key Features of Heliozincography:

1. Combination of Photography and Printing:
   • Heliozincography involved transferring photographic images onto zinc plates, which could then be used to reproduce maps or drawings. The process started with a photograph of the original map or illustration, which was then used to prepare a printing plate.
2. Zinc Plates:
   • The process utilized zinc plates as the medium for printing, replacing traditional stone or copper plates that had been used earlier in lithography and engraving. Zinc offered a cheaper and faster alternative for producing detailed prints.
3. Application in Cartography:
   • Heliozincography was widely used for map reproduction, especially by government survey departments, including the Survey of India and the Ordnance Survey in Britain. It allowed the mass production of accurate and detailed maps.
   • For example, the Survey of India under Colonel Sidney Gerald Burrard would have used heliozincography or similar methods to reproduce maps from surveys like the 1911 Baramulla and Anantnag survey.
4. Advantages:
   • Cost-effectiveness: Zinc plates were cheaper to produce than copper or stone plates.
   • Speed: It allowed for quicker production of multiple copies, which was especially useful for distributing maps and technical drawings.
   • Precision: The photographic component of the process ensured a high degree of accuracy in reproducing details.
5. Process:
   • The original image (such as a map or drawing) was photographed, and the photographic image was chemically transferred onto the surface of the zinc plate.
   • The plate was then treated with chemicals so that only the lines or details to be printed remained on the surface, while the rest was etched away.
   • Ink would adhere to the raised parts of the plate, and the image would be transferred onto paper through a printing press.

Historical Use:

• Survey of India: The heliozincograph was widely used by the Survey of India for producing accurate and reproducible maps of regions such as Kashmir. Given the difficulty in producing detailed maps of mountainous terrain, the precision of this process was essential for both administrative and military purposes.
• Ordnance Survey: In the UK, heliozincography was used by the Ordnance Survey to reproduce topographical maps with the necessary detail for military and civilian use.

Conclusion:

Heliozincography played a crucial role in the mass production of accurate, detailed maps and technical drawings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It combined the emerging technology of photography with traditional zinc plate printing, providing a fast, cost-effective method for disseminating important geographical and technical information, particularly in fields like cartography.

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